Post by Indilwen on Jul 14, 2010 15:03:48 GMT 12
Celtic Mythology and Legends
The religion of Ireland is greatly steeped in magic and superstitious. Past deeds were recorded in an oral tradition by a sub-class of the Druids are commonly referred to as the Druids. It is said that even the Druids had to know some 360 different stories by heart.
Two different groups of Celts entered into the British Isles: the lowland Celts who came from around the Danube River and later merged with the Galatae, a second group encompassed an entire culture known as the Megalithic peoples of Europe, and a third were the Celts who came from around the Rhine River near the Balkans and Carpathian Mountain ranges. These cultures are referred to as the Belgae, Aquitani, and Celtae, respectively.
The Celtae were very aggressive. These are the traditional group of Celts who sacked Rome and Delphi. They were fierce warriors and enjoyed the lives of being a mercenary. The women were the ones who maintained the land for producing food. The men, however, looked down upon all forms of agriculture. They held to a military bureaucracy, and it was only through the coming of Druidism that this warlike nature diminished. This tribe was descended from Aryan of the Aryans, and thus the art of war came naturally to them. They were capable of working iron, and buried their dead instead of cremating them. The Celtae had one overwhelming distinguishing quality, though. They were fine musicians who greatly prized their bardic traditions. In servitude to Lugh Lamfada, they held great musical ceremonies across all of Europe.
The Belgae were a peaceful people who lived by agriculture. They came from around the area of the Danube and slowly made their way to Gaul. They do not appear to have forced their way there, but rather to slowly merge with the cultures that were already evident. The Belgae lived in the valleys and the plains. They possessed the knowledge of metallurgy and were very adept at working with gold, tin, and bronze. Another interesting note on this group is that they always burned there dead instead of burying them. There is not even a single example of a body being buried. Dr. Bernard, the Bishop of Killaloe, believed in the possibility that the Belgae and the Danmonii later developed into what was known in the Celtic legends as the Firbolg and the Tuatha de Danann.
The Aquitani are the original Megalithic people of Europe. Strabo remarked that they resembled the Iberian and were vastly different from the other two groups in both their language and culture. They are thought to have come originally from Northern Africa and across the Strait of Gibraltar to Europe proper. They had knowledge of agriculture and the ability to transverse the waters. This culture was responsible for the building of the dolmens and other great stone monuments. They also had a priesthood which presided over the burial of the dead and as a form of leadership for the community. It is theorized that the Aquitani brought with them the religious ideologies of the Egyptians which would later be integrated with the Celtic beliefs. There is an interesting occurrence that the Druids existed only where there were both dolmen-builders and a population of Celts.
From this conglomeration of cultures are born the mythologies of the Celts. The ones that we will be focusing on, however, deal mostly with the Irish. But, we must remember where these people came form and what the living conditions were like that inspired them to follow these beliefs. From the Celtae we find a love fore music and poetry, but an aggression for war. From the Aquitana, we are presented with a belief in a life after death, a remembrance of the dead, and an organized priesthood who presided over religious rituals and kept their beliefs alive. And lastly, from the Belgae, we come to understand the older beliefs in such things as cosmological forces and elemental deities.
In Celtic mythology, there were five races that initially invaded Ireland: the Partholonians, the Nemedians, the Firbolg, the Tuatha de Danann, and finally the Milesians. Not to mention, there was a race of giants that lived in the ocean named the Fomorian. They were the adversaries of the five races and can be related to the Greek titans.
Now, it is of course queried as to who recorded the coming of these different races and related their stories to the later Christians who recorded these legends. We then must look to the "Book of the Dun Cow," which was written in 1100 AD There is a manuscript contained therein entitled, "The Legend of Tuan mac Carell" which tells the story of a Irish abbot of the sixth century by the name of St. Finnen from Moville, Co. Donegal As is custom in Ireland, he was seeking the hospitality of a local chieftain named Tuan mac Carell. Unfortunately, the king refused him hospitality. St. Finnen then proceeded to remain at the entrance of his fortress through an entire Sunday, after which Tuan admitted to him and they began to speak to one another. He told of the old legends concerning legends. By the time Finnen left the fortress he relayed the details of his adventure to the monastery where he lived. Later, Tuan and his warriors came to visit the monastery and began to relate the history of Ireland to the group that was gathered before him and his men.
Tuan mac Carell told the assembly that he was actually Tuan son of Starn, whose brother was Partholonian the first man who came to the shores of Ireland. He himself was an Ulster man who had lived in various shapes through the ages and thus was able to stand as a witness to the history of the people of Ireland.
Some legends say that the Nemedians eventually disappeared altogether for no apparent reason. Another possibility could be attributed to their worship of the Fomorii as gods. They would sacrifice their children and even themselves according to legend. It is suggested that this god may have actually been Tigernmas, a Fomorian king who later becomes the king of the Milesians. He is also identified with Balor of the Eye, whose terrible eye upon opening would kill all within the range of its sight. It is said that he himself worshipped the bloody god Cromm Cruaich, and that it was he who began this horrible religion in Ireland. Tigernmas, a chieftain of the Fomorian, was said to have made all of Ireland pay a tribute of two-thirds of their children, corn, and milk. Even in his great cruelty, he is attributed with bringing the art of smelting gold to Ireland. In later times, Tigernmas becomes the grandfather of Lugh by Ethniu.
There are more stories concerning the battle which helped them the Nemedians to overcome the Fomorian chieftain Conann. The combined effects of the war, the heavy tribute, and the plague which followed would easily have destroyed a culture whose people were constantly in threat of dying out. Even in battle, there was said to be only 36 warriors who fought.
The first two races both came in small numbers and died of the plague. The first evidence that we see a real appearance of an influence in the mythology of Ireland begins with the Firbolg. There were three groups of Firbolg: the Fir-Bolg, the Fir-Domnan, and the Galioin. But, these are somewhat meshed together in the legends and little can be deciphered between them. The first mythological character to appear is that of Taltiu, who is the daughter of the king of the Great Plain. Now, we can only see the remains of what might have possibly been her palace, Telltown. Even until later times, she became identified with the festival Lughnasdah. It is that Lugh dedicated a festival for her to honor his foster mother. This has long since been an important site in archaeology, as it is one of the royal coronation sites throughout Ireland.
Another important figure that came from this race was Eochaid Mac Eirc, or Eochaid the Proud. His reign marked the last Firbolg to rule as High king in Ireland. It lasted for ten years, during which no rain ever fell. Through him, law was introduced into Ireland. This great changed had vast significance in that there was no war. Even the spear which was so important at that time eventually disappeared altogether as they no longer served a purpose.
The race that makes the most important impact on Irish legend is probably the Tuatha de Danann. The name itself means "Folk of the God Whose Mother is Dana." Elsewhere, she is also called Brigit. Her father was the Dagda, the ruling chieftain of the Tuatha de Danann. She herself was the mother of the three great gods of Ireland: Brian, Iucharba, and Iuchair. They were the Dei Dana, the sons of the goddess Dana. Together that were in themselves a single god who had a son called Ecne which means "knowledge" or "poetry."
Brigit was not unknown by the Celtae who sacked Rome and Delphi during the fourth century. Now, in 390 BC, when it was questioned concerning the identity of their king, they replied with the name of their god, Brennos. This name was the earlier form of the name of the Dei Dana, Brian. But, in the Roman language, this would translate as Bregentinos. This stands as further evidence that the worship of Brigit was a familiar one to the Romans. It is speculated that the origin of this particular deity came from Gaul by a group called the Phrygians. Later, they changed their name and became the Brigantes who lived in England and southern Scotland.
The goddess Brigit became synonymous with the goddess Danu. Both were river goddesses. Danu, otherwise known as Dana, stood as the personification of the Danube River. Brigit was a toutal goddess of the Brigantes, and was identified with the Brent River. Together, they merged with other goddesses such as Domnu in Wales, and Anu. She was the triple mother goddess of the Celts. Brigit had three distinct functions: agriculture, knowledge, and metallurgy. These related to the three functions which are defined throughout all of the culture.
These three functions correspond to the three classes of the society. The first was that of the commoner who worked the land and produced specialty items for the community. The second included the warriors and hunters. They were the ones who served to protect the community. The last was the class of the kings and the clergy. This is where the Druids and the chieftains were included.
Within the Druidic orders were three different orders. The first was an elite group that included the Druis and was comprised entirely of males. Not even the chieftain could speak unless his Druis spoke first. It was he who led the people into war and advised the king in all matters. The Druis was also in charge of all the major rituals and sacrifices, not to mention any major judgements that were made concerning the law. Another role maintained by the Druis was that of a scientist. They also helped to instruct the colleges that were set up as places of learning.
The second group was the File. This order contained both men and women, but the sexes were separated by sex and their position in the orders. They were also divided by the number of stories they could relate. In the Irish societies, women and men were more or less equal, but they fulfilled different roles that were divided by the sexes. Thus the males and females carried out their roles independently of one another. The females often helped to judge the more domestic matters concerning law. They also acted in the way of a soothsayer and a healer. The males kept an oral tradition of history and also used some forms of divination for the purpose of consultation. But whereas the females gave advise and helped in much the same way as a psychologist would, the males read omens and interpreted the cosmos. However, for the majority of the File were women.
The last order was that of the bards. It was the bards who inspire us with their music and remind us of the past. They recorded an oral history of the land itself and the deeds of the heroes who walked the land. Within their words, kings were immortalized. They were the communicators and transmitters of information, carrying news of battle and conquests. Most carried with them a special harp called a cruith by the Irish. In later times, the Bards merged with the File and became one order.
Anyone was capable of becoming a Druid. It was not a class that one was necessarily born into, instead it was a life's calling. Colleges were maintained were students could come to learn and study. Although none of them have actually been found, they are well documented throughout history. As Christianity made its way into the land of Ireland, monasteries arose where the colleges once stood. They remained as places of learning still, but under a new religion.
The fall of Druidism started with the Roman reign of Tiberius. Under the reign of Augustus, only Roman citizens were allowed to take part. He also permitted them to teach at colleges under Pomponius Mela, however, most of the locations of these learning centers were hidden deep within the forests. By the time of Claudius, in 54 A.D, the Druids were completely driven out of the Roman empire. In fact, any one who dealt in any way with the Druids was put to death. An example of such a case can be seen with a nobleman from Voconces who was found to be carrying a serpents egg, which was associated with the magic performed by the Druids. Upon seizing the man, they discovered the egg and immediately sentenced him to death.
It is questioned as to whether or not the Lindow Man was actually a Druid, but we are able to find out some interesting things about the practices of the Druids. The one problem we are confronted with when we study the Druids is the overwhelming lack of evidence. Most of what is cited as fact is for the most part speculation, or literary references which were tainted by foreign influences. Even when we look at such observers as Pliny, we see a drastic contradiction to anything that could possibly be true. One such incident occurs with the gathering of mistletoe off of oak trees with a golden sickle. This is both unlikely and unpractical. Not only is mistletoe difficult to find on growing on oak trees, who were themselves uncommon at the time, we are faced with the nature of a gold sickle in its ability to carry out the deed. "Even if the sickle was made of bronze, it still wouldn't work." says according to a weaponsmith familiar with the technology of the Celts, as well as with the properties of metals.
On August 1, 1984 the body of a man was found in the peat while it was being commercially dug up in a bog at Lindow in Cheshire, near Manchester, England. The body was of a male in perfect condition, so well preserved that it was at first questioned whether or not the body might have been that of a murder victim. Upon study, it was confirmed to belong to a man around the age of 25. He was in top physical condition, and possessed the unblemished skin that was so highly prized among the Celts. He was dressed richly and even his nailed had been manicured. The sword he carried was not used heavily by him in battle, as his muscles remained evenly developed and did not carry the distinctive characteristics of a Celtic warrior. For over 2,200 years he had lain within the bog, untouched since the day that he was sacrificed during a Beltaine ritual. As was tradition, a lottery was held to determine who would become the sacrificial victim. A flat griddle cake made of barley, called a bannock, was prepared and flavored with mistletoe pollen and burnt heather. A small area was then singed, and the bannock was torn into several pieces. These were placed within a leather bag. This was then passed among all the players of the lotto, and the one who drew out the burnt piece became a martyr of the gods From what they have been able to find out, the ritual of his death occurred approximately five minutes after the man had ingested the bannock cake. He was first garroted by a piece of sinew that had been knotted three times, then he was hit twice on the rear of the head using a bludgeoning technique with an axe which fractured the skull, then his carotid artery was cut to drain off his blood, and finally he was drowned in a shallow pool of water. This whole procedure had a special purpose. Since this particular ritual was held on Beltaine, the Druids were attempting to appease three different gods: Taranis, Esus, and Teuttates. Each god had a specific method that was used for their sacrificial victims, and thus to make the sacrifice worthy to all of them the victim had to be executed thusly.
Christianity merged with the native religion. The legends still remained in tack, but instead mention gave praise to God and the Holy Trinity instead of the pagan deities. Those that did not follow in this path were said to follow the Devil. Unfortunately, what record we do have of the Irish themselves are either myths that have been re-written by the Christian monks, or recorded by the Romans.
It is from these re-written versions of the Celtic legends that we turn to for insight into the Celtic culture. Again, it must be emphasized that these were changed by the Christian monks to reflect a more Christian view of the pagan world.
The Tuatha de Danann arrived in Ireland on Beltaine on a Monday. They are said to have come from the heavens and to have wafted onto the shores in a magical cloud somewhere on the Northeastern coast under the cover of invisibility. From there they traveled westward toward the land of Connaught. It was when they reached the northwestern corner of that land that they were discovered by the Firbolg who had been living there. At this time, the Tuatha de Danann were able to set up a fortress at their encampment which they named Mag-Rein.
The Firbolg sent a representative by the name of Sreng to meet with a member of the Tuatha de Danann by the name of Bress. Upon meeting each other, they related their genealogies and then immediately struck up a conversation about the variances between their spears. Now this was possible because al of the Irish invaders were said to be descended from Gomer of Magog, who were the sons of Japhet. The spears of the Firbolg were heavy and blunt, where as the spears of the Tuatha were light and sharp. This is often times considered to be a comparison between the powers of science verses that of raw brute force.
Bress suggested that they split the entire land of Ireland in half so that the two peoples could live peacefully together. When they had concluded, both warriors returned to their respected abodes; Bress to Mag-Rein, and Sreng to the Firbolg capitol at Tara. When news was returned of this offer, the Firbolg refused and set out to do battle with the Tuatha de Danann.
On fifth day of June the two sides met in the First Battle of Mag-Tured on the Plain of the Towers. This referred to the many sepulchral monuments which laid scattered across the area. It should also be mentioned that the Plain was considered to encompass the entire land of Ireland, and that the distinction between the first and second battles is made only when the Christian monk Flann Manistrech rewrites the legends according to what would then be the modern ideas of the time during the eleventh century.
The site of the First Battle of Mag-Tured is located in what represents present-day Co. Mayo near Cong. The Firbolg were led by Mac Erc, while the army of the Tuatha de Danann was placed in charge of their chieftain, Nuada Argatlam. The king of the Firbolg was slain. In the end, it was the Tuatha who held the final victory by making the Firbolg agreeing to live in Connaught while the rest of Ireland would remain with them. But, the Tuatha was not without their own loss for the arm of Nuada had been cut off and thus he could no longer reign as their king. A silver arm was fashioned for the Nuada, but he was not perfect in every way and thus was unacceptable and had to step down. They were forced to choose among all of their number a man of perfect complexion who would become their new High King. This man was Bress, the son of a Danann woman named Eri.
Bress married the daughter of the Nuada, or Dagda as he is otherwise known. This woman is the same goddess Brigit that we mentioned earlier. By him she had four sons; three comprised the Dei Dana, and the forth was a man by the name of Ruadan. During the Second Battle of Mag-Tured, Ruadan sides with the Fomorii and acts as their spy. He is openly received by the Tuatha de Danann, and thus is able to obtain information. At one point, he tries to sabotage the Tuatha by killing their smith, Goibnui. As he strikes the smith down with his spear, the smith removes the spear from his body and returns the blow killing Ruadan. The question therein lies as to why Ruadan chose to side with the Fomorii instead of with the Tuatha de Danann.
Bress ruled over the Tuatha for seven years during which he heavily taxed his people and allowed the Fomorii to also tax them as well. Those who came to eat at his table were hardly able to fill their stomach, and they never were offered ale as was custom at the time. Bress was a shrewd king. Legends are told about the great charity of his wife compared to the overwhelming lack of hospitality and generosity that characterized his rule. It was at this time that Corpry, a bard, came seeking his hospitality and was given a cold dank room with three stale cakes to eat. Corpry was so dismayed over what had transpired that he wrote the first satire that had ever been composed in Ireland. The power of it sang through the hearts of the people and they were displeased with King Bress. Diancecht, the god of medicine and healing, had been working on trying to grow the Nuada a new arm. He was successful, and so the former king was able to reclaim his position. Bress is displaced and so flees to the house of his mother.
When Bress arrived at the house of his mother, he begged her to tell him who his father was. She relayed to him the story of how she had met his father, a Fomorian. He had given her a ring which would fit only one man's hands. Slipping it onto his finger, they decide to set sail for the Fomorian kingdom of the sea. When they arrive at the court of his father, Elatha, Bress is granted an army and two generals to help him exact his revenge on the Tuatha de Danann. One, Balor of the Mighty Blows possessed a terrible eye, which when opened, would kill all who were within its sight. The second was Indech Mac de Domnann who was the grandson of the god of the Fomorii, Domna. Indech was a Fomorian Druid, and the grandfather of Balor. As a Druid he commanded great powers of darkness which were fearsome to behold. The Fomorii were considered to be in themselves gods of evil, darkness, and death. Whereas the Tuatha de Danann are the gods of light, knowledge, and inspiration.
At the Second Battle of Mag-Tured Nuada Argatlam is struck down by Balor's evil eye. Lugh of the Long Arm fights at the side of his father, the Dagda, and takes his revenge by using a slingshot to push Balor's eye back into his skull so that he dies. Oghma, the champion of the Tuatha de Danann, steals the Sword of Tethra. In return, the Fomorii take the harp of the Dagda. Now, it must be remarked that the ability of the Dagda to perform these deeds after his death is attributed to the immortal qualities possessed by the gods. Thus, the Dagda travels together with Lugh and Oghma to retrieve his harp from the hands of the Fomorii. He calls his harp back to him, and in the process the harp slays nine of the Fomorii in its flight back to its rightful owner. The Dagda then proceeds to play each of the three strings on the harp. The first causes the women of the Fomorii to cry and lament, the second to laugh hilariously without thought of word or deed, and the last to put the entire encampment asleep. Once everyone was deeply asleep, the three warriors escaped from the Fomorii and returned home with the harp.
But the harp is not the only magical item possessed by the Tuatha de Danann. It is said that they came from four different cities which each carried a special treasure to the new land of Ireland. The first one came from Falias and was a stone that no one could stand upon and tell a lie. It was called the Lia Fial, or the Stone of Destiny. During the sixth century, Fergus the Great of Scotland asked the High King of Ireland, Murtagh mac Erc for the loan of the stone for his coronation. The stone was later returned. Each High King of Ireland was crowned upon the Lia Fial which was kept at Tara. It was only until the reign of Edward I in 1297 that the stone was taken for use at Westminster Abbey. Now, according to legend only the descendants of the Milesians could make use of the stone. Even today this hold true as the ruling royalty is still said to possess this lineage.
The other three treasures included the Sword of Lugh from Gorius. The cult of the sword was very important in that time. It was believed that a sword could hold the power of a people and thus it was of great importance. Another was the Cauldron of the Dagda was Murias. It was said that the cauldron was able to feed large gathering of men and never go empty. Truly, this would be a wonderful strategy to make use of during times of war. The last was the Spear of Lugh which was guarded the Tuatha de Danann. To fight with the Spear was to be victorious in battle. By its light their enemies would go blind.
Eventually, the Tuatha de Danann had to fall as all great peoples must do. When the Milesians came, their representative Ith was asked to settle an argument between two feuding chieftains. He spoke of the greatness and richness of Ireland and told them that they should equally divide up the land and share this wealth. This comment was taken to be an aggressive action and it was believed that Ith wanted part of Ireland for himself. To prevent this, they killed him. When word reached his homeland, an army was sent to avenge him. The Tuatha de Danann were driven under the hills where they became the Sidhe, or faerie folk.
The religion of Ireland is greatly steeped in magic and superstitious. Past deeds were recorded in an oral tradition by a sub-class of the Druids are commonly referred to as the Druids. It is said that even the Druids had to know some 360 different stories by heart.
Two different groups of Celts entered into the British Isles: the lowland Celts who came from around the Danube River and later merged with the Galatae, a second group encompassed an entire culture known as the Megalithic peoples of Europe, and a third were the Celts who came from around the Rhine River near the Balkans and Carpathian Mountain ranges. These cultures are referred to as the Belgae, Aquitani, and Celtae, respectively.
The Celtae were very aggressive. These are the traditional group of Celts who sacked Rome and Delphi. They were fierce warriors and enjoyed the lives of being a mercenary. The women were the ones who maintained the land for producing food. The men, however, looked down upon all forms of agriculture. They held to a military bureaucracy, and it was only through the coming of Druidism that this warlike nature diminished. This tribe was descended from Aryan of the Aryans, and thus the art of war came naturally to them. They were capable of working iron, and buried their dead instead of cremating them. The Celtae had one overwhelming distinguishing quality, though. They were fine musicians who greatly prized their bardic traditions. In servitude to Lugh Lamfada, they held great musical ceremonies across all of Europe.
The Belgae were a peaceful people who lived by agriculture. They came from around the area of the Danube and slowly made their way to Gaul. They do not appear to have forced their way there, but rather to slowly merge with the cultures that were already evident. The Belgae lived in the valleys and the plains. They possessed the knowledge of metallurgy and were very adept at working with gold, tin, and bronze. Another interesting note on this group is that they always burned there dead instead of burying them. There is not even a single example of a body being buried. Dr. Bernard, the Bishop of Killaloe, believed in the possibility that the Belgae and the Danmonii later developed into what was known in the Celtic legends as the Firbolg and the Tuatha de Danann.
The Aquitani are the original Megalithic people of Europe. Strabo remarked that they resembled the Iberian and were vastly different from the other two groups in both their language and culture. They are thought to have come originally from Northern Africa and across the Strait of Gibraltar to Europe proper. They had knowledge of agriculture and the ability to transverse the waters. This culture was responsible for the building of the dolmens and other great stone monuments. They also had a priesthood which presided over the burial of the dead and as a form of leadership for the community. It is theorized that the Aquitani brought with them the religious ideologies of the Egyptians which would later be integrated with the Celtic beliefs. There is an interesting occurrence that the Druids existed only where there were both dolmen-builders and a population of Celts.
From this conglomeration of cultures are born the mythologies of the Celts. The ones that we will be focusing on, however, deal mostly with the Irish. But, we must remember where these people came form and what the living conditions were like that inspired them to follow these beliefs. From the Celtae we find a love fore music and poetry, but an aggression for war. From the Aquitana, we are presented with a belief in a life after death, a remembrance of the dead, and an organized priesthood who presided over religious rituals and kept their beliefs alive. And lastly, from the Belgae, we come to understand the older beliefs in such things as cosmological forces and elemental deities.
In Celtic mythology, there were five races that initially invaded Ireland: the Partholonians, the Nemedians, the Firbolg, the Tuatha de Danann, and finally the Milesians. Not to mention, there was a race of giants that lived in the ocean named the Fomorian. They were the adversaries of the five races and can be related to the Greek titans.
Now, it is of course queried as to who recorded the coming of these different races and related their stories to the later Christians who recorded these legends. We then must look to the "Book of the Dun Cow," which was written in 1100 AD There is a manuscript contained therein entitled, "The Legend of Tuan mac Carell" which tells the story of a Irish abbot of the sixth century by the name of St. Finnen from Moville, Co. Donegal As is custom in Ireland, he was seeking the hospitality of a local chieftain named Tuan mac Carell. Unfortunately, the king refused him hospitality. St. Finnen then proceeded to remain at the entrance of his fortress through an entire Sunday, after which Tuan admitted to him and they began to speak to one another. He told of the old legends concerning legends. By the time Finnen left the fortress he relayed the details of his adventure to the monastery where he lived. Later, Tuan and his warriors came to visit the monastery and began to relate the history of Ireland to the group that was gathered before him and his men.
Tuan mac Carell told the assembly that he was actually Tuan son of Starn, whose brother was Partholonian the first man who came to the shores of Ireland. He himself was an Ulster man who had lived in various shapes through the ages and thus was able to stand as a witness to the history of the people of Ireland.
Some legends say that the Nemedians eventually disappeared altogether for no apparent reason. Another possibility could be attributed to their worship of the Fomorii as gods. They would sacrifice their children and even themselves according to legend. It is suggested that this god may have actually been Tigernmas, a Fomorian king who later becomes the king of the Milesians. He is also identified with Balor of the Eye, whose terrible eye upon opening would kill all within the range of its sight. It is said that he himself worshipped the bloody god Cromm Cruaich, and that it was he who began this horrible religion in Ireland. Tigernmas, a chieftain of the Fomorian, was said to have made all of Ireland pay a tribute of two-thirds of their children, corn, and milk. Even in his great cruelty, he is attributed with bringing the art of smelting gold to Ireland. In later times, Tigernmas becomes the grandfather of Lugh by Ethniu.
There are more stories concerning the battle which helped them the Nemedians to overcome the Fomorian chieftain Conann. The combined effects of the war, the heavy tribute, and the plague which followed would easily have destroyed a culture whose people were constantly in threat of dying out. Even in battle, there was said to be only 36 warriors who fought.
The first two races both came in small numbers and died of the plague. The first evidence that we see a real appearance of an influence in the mythology of Ireland begins with the Firbolg. There were three groups of Firbolg: the Fir-Bolg, the Fir-Domnan, and the Galioin. But, these are somewhat meshed together in the legends and little can be deciphered between them. The first mythological character to appear is that of Taltiu, who is the daughter of the king of the Great Plain. Now, we can only see the remains of what might have possibly been her palace, Telltown. Even until later times, she became identified with the festival Lughnasdah. It is that Lugh dedicated a festival for her to honor his foster mother. This has long since been an important site in archaeology, as it is one of the royal coronation sites throughout Ireland.
Another important figure that came from this race was Eochaid Mac Eirc, or Eochaid the Proud. His reign marked the last Firbolg to rule as High king in Ireland. It lasted for ten years, during which no rain ever fell. Through him, law was introduced into Ireland. This great changed had vast significance in that there was no war. Even the spear which was so important at that time eventually disappeared altogether as they no longer served a purpose.
The race that makes the most important impact on Irish legend is probably the Tuatha de Danann. The name itself means "Folk of the God Whose Mother is Dana." Elsewhere, she is also called Brigit. Her father was the Dagda, the ruling chieftain of the Tuatha de Danann. She herself was the mother of the three great gods of Ireland: Brian, Iucharba, and Iuchair. They were the Dei Dana, the sons of the goddess Dana. Together that were in themselves a single god who had a son called Ecne which means "knowledge" or "poetry."
Brigit was not unknown by the Celtae who sacked Rome and Delphi during the fourth century. Now, in 390 BC, when it was questioned concerning the identity of their king, they replied with the name of their god, Brennos. This name was the earlier form of the name of the Dei Dana, Brian. But, in the Roman language, this would translate as Bregentinos. This stands as further evidence that the worship of Brigit was a familiar one to the Romans. It is speculated that the origin of this particular deity came from Gaul by a group called the Phrygians. Later, they changed their name and became the Brigantes who lived in England and southern Scotland.
The goddess Brigit became synonymous with the goddess Danu. Both were river goddesses. Danu, otherwise known as Dana, stood as the personification of the Danube River. Brigit was a toutal goddess of the Brigantes, and was identified with the Brent River. Together, they merged with other goddesses such as Domnu in Wales, and Anu. She was the triple mother goddess of the Celts. Brigit had three distinct functions: agriculture, knowledge, and metallurgy. These related to the three functions which are defined throughout all of the culture.
These three functions correspond to the three classes of the society. The first was that of the commoner who worked the land and produced specialty items for the community. The second included the warriors and hunters. They were the ones who served to protect the community. The last was the class of the kings and the clergy. This is where the Druids and the chieftains were included.
Within the Druidic orders were three different orders. The first was an elite group that included the Druis and was comprised entirely of males. Not even the chieftain could speak unless his Druis spoke first. It was he who led the people into war and advised the king in all matters. The Druis was also in charge of all the major rituals and sacrifices, not to mention any major judgements that were made concerning the law. Another role maintained by the Druis was that of a scientist. They also helped to instruct the colleges that were set up as places of learning.
The second group was the File. This order contained both men and women, but the sexes were separated by sex and their position in the orders. They were also divided by the number of stories they could relate. In the Irish societies, women and men were more or less equal, but they fulfilled different roles that were divided by the sexes. Thus the males and females carried out their roles independently of one another. The females often helped to judge the more domestic matters concerning law. They also acted in the way of a soothsayer and a healer. The males kept an oral tradition of history and also used some forms of divination for the purpose of consultation. But whereas the females gave advise and helped in much the same way as a psychologist would, the males read omens and interpreted the cosmos. However, for the majority of the File were women.
The last order was that of the bards. It was the bards who inspire us with their music and remind us of the past. They recorded an oral history of the land itself and the deeds of the heroes who walked the land. Within their words, kings were immortalized. They were the communicators and transmitters of information, carrying news of battle and conquests. Most carried with them a special harp called a cruith by the Irish. In later times, the Bards merged with the File and became one order.
Anyone was capable of becoming a Druid. It was not a class that one was necessarily born into, instead it was a life's calling. Colleges were maintained were students could come to learn and study. Although none of them have actually been found, they are well documented throughout history. As Christianity made its way into the land of Ireland, monasteries arose where the colleges once stood. They remained as places of learning still, but under a new religion.
The fall of Druidism started with the Roman reign of Tiberius. Under the reign of Augustus, only Roman citizens were allowed to take part. He also permitted them to teach at colleges under Pomponius Mela, however, most of the locations of these learning centers were hidden deep within the forests. By the time of Claudius, in 54 A.D, the Druids were completely driven out of the Roman empire. In fact, any one who dealt in any way with the Druids was put to death. An example of such a case can be seen with a nobleman from Voconces who was found to be carrying a serpents egg, which was associated with the magic performed by the Druids. Upon seizing the man, they discovered the egg and immediately sentenced him to death.
It is questioned as to whether or not the Lindow Man was actually a Druid, but we are able to find out some interesting things about the practices of the Druids. The one problem we are confronted with when we study the Druids is the overwhelming lack of evidence. Most of what is cited as fact is for the most part speculation, or literary references which were tainted by foreign influences. Even when we look at such observers as Pliny, we see a drastic contradiction to anything that could possibly be true. One such incident occurs with the gathering of mistletoe off of oak trees with a golden sickle. This is both unlikely and unpractical. Not only is mistletoe difficult to find on growing on oak trees, who were themselves uncommon at the time, we are faced with the nature of a gold sickle in its ability to carry out the deed. "Even if the sickle was made of bronze, it still wouldn't work." says according to a weaponsmith familiar with the technology of the Celts, as well as with the properties of metals.
On August 1, 1984 the body of a man was found in the peat while it was being commercially dug up in a bog at Lindow in Cheshire, near Manchester, England. The body was of a male in perfect condition, so well preserved that it was at first questioned whether or not the body might have been that of a murder victim. Upon study, it was confirmed to belong to a man around the age of 25. He was in top physical condition, and possessed the unblemished skin that was so highly prized among the Celts. He was dressed richly and even his nailed had been manicured. The sword he carried was not used heavily by him in battle, as his muscles remained evenly developed and did not carry the distinctive characteristics of a Celtic warrior. For over 2,200 years he had lain within the bog, untouched since the day that he was sacrificed during a Beltaine ritual. As was tradition, a lottery was held to determine who would become the sacrificial victim. A flat griddle cake made of barley, called a bannock, was prepared and flavored with mistletoe pollen and burnt heather. A small area was then singed, and the bannock was torn into several pieces. These were placed within a leather bag. This was then passed among all the players of the lotto, and the one who drew out the burnt piece became a martyr of the gods From what they have been able to find out, the ritual of his death occurred approximately five minutes after the man had ingested the bannock cake. He was first garroted by a piece of sinew that had been knotted three times, then he was hit twice on the rear of the head using a bludgeoning technique with an axe which fractured the skull, then his carotid artery was cut to drain off his blood, and finally he was drowned in a shallow pool of water. This whole procedure had a special purpose. Since this particular ritual was held on Beltaine, the Druids were attempting to appease three different gods: Taranis, Esus, and Teuttates. Each god had a specific method that was used for their sacrificial victims, and thus to make the sacrifice worthy to all of them the victim had to be executed thusly.
Christianity merged with the native religion. The legends still remained in tack, but instead mention gave praise to God and the Holy Trinity instead of the pagan deities. Those that did not follow in this path were said to follow the Devil. Unfortunately, what record we do have of the Irish themselves are either myths that have been re-written by the Christian monks, or recorded by the Romans.
It is from these re-written versions of the Celtic legends that we turn to for insight into the Celtic culture. Again, it must be emphasized that these were changed by the Christian monks to reflect a more Christian view of the pagan world.
The Tuatha de Danann arrived in Ireland on Beltaine on a Monday. They are said to have come from the heavens and to have wafted onto the shores in a magical cloud somewhere on the Northeastern coast under the cover of invisibility. From there they traveled westward toward the land of Connaught. It was when they reached the northwestern corner of that land that they were discovered by the Firbolg who had been living there. At this time, the Tuatha de Danann were able to set up a fortress at their encampment which they named Mag-Rein.
The Firbolg sent a representative by the name of Sreng to meet with a member of the Tuatha de Danann by the name of Bress. Upon meeting each other, they related their genealogies and then immediately struck up a conversation about the variances between their spears. Now this was possible because al of the Irish invaders were said to be descended from Gomer of Magog, who were the sons of Japhet. The spears of the Firbolg were heavy and blunt, where as the spears of the Tuatha were light and sharp. This is often times considered to be a comparison between the powers of science verses that of raw brute force.
Bress suggested that they split the entire land of Ireland in half so that the two peoples could live peacefully together. When they had concluded, both warriors returned to their respected abodes; Bress to Mag-Rein, and Sreng to the Firbolg capitol at Tara. When news was returned of this offer, the Firbolg refused and set out to do battle with the Tuatha de Danann.
On fifth day of June the two sides met in the First Battle of Mag-Tured on the Plain of the Towers. This referred to the many sepulchral monuments which laid scattered across the area. It should also be mentioned that the Plain was considered to encompass the entire land of Ireland, and that the distinction between the first and second battles is made only when the Christian monk Flann Manistrech rewrites the legends according to what would then be the modern ideas of the time during the eleventh century.
The site of the First Battle of Mag-Tured is located in what represents present-day Co. Mayo near Cong. The Firbolg were led by Mac Erc, while the army of the Tuatha de Danann was placed in charge of their chieftain, Nuada Argatlam. The king of the Firbolg was slain. In the end, it was the Tuatha who held the final victory by making the Firbolg agreeing to live in Connaught while the rest of Ireland would remain with them. But, the Tuatha was not without their own loss for the arm of Nuada had been cut off and thus he could no longer reign as their king. A silver arm was fashioned for the Nuada, but he was not perfect in every way and thus was unacceptable and had to step down. They were forced to choose among all of their number a man of perfect complexion who would become their new High King. This man was Bress, the son of a Danann woman named Eri.
Bress married the daughter of the Nuada, or Dagda as he is otherwise known. This woman is the same goddess Brigit that we mentioned earlier. By him she had four sons; three comprised the Dei Dana, and the forth was a man by the name of Ruadan. During the Second Battle of Mag-Tured, Ruadan sides with the Fomorii and acts as their spy. He is openly received by the Tuatha de Danann, and thus is able to obtain information. At one point, he tries to sabotage the Tuatha by killing their smith, Goibnui. As he strikes the smith down with his spear, the smith removes the spear from his body and returns the blow killing Ruadan. The question therein lies as to why Ruadan chose to side with the Fomorii instead of with the Tuatha de Danann.
Bress ruled over the Tuatha for seven years during which he heavily taxed his people and allowed the Fomorii to also tax them as well. Those who came to eat at his table were hardly able to fill their stomach, and they never were offered ale as was custom at the time. Bress was a shrewd king. Legends are told about the great charity of his wife compared to the overwhelming lack of hospitality and generosity that characterized his rule. It was at this time that Corpry, a bard, came seeking his hospitality and was given a cold dank room with three stale cakes to eat. Corpry was so dismayed over what had transpired that he wrote the first satire that had ever been composed in Ireland. The power of it sang through the hearts of the people and they were displeased with King Bress. Diancecht, the god of medicine and healing, had been working on trying to grow the Nuada a new arm. He was successful, and so the former king was able to reclaim his position. Bress is displaced and so flees to the house of his mother.
When Bress arrived at the house of his mother, he begged her to tell him who his father was. She relayed to him the story of how she had met his father, a Fomorian. He had given her a ring which would fit only one man's hands. Slipping it onto his finger, they decide to set sail for the Fomorian kingdom of the sea. When they arrive at the court of his father, Elatha, Bress is granted an army and two generals to help him exact his revenge on the Tuatha de Danann. One, Balor of the Mighty Blows possessed a terrible eye, which when opened, would kill all who were within its sight. The second was Indech Mac de Domnann who was the grandson of the god of the Fomorii, Domna. Indech was a Fomorian Druid, and the grandfather of Balor. As a Druid he commanded great powers of darkness which were fearsome to behold. The Fomorii were considered to be in themselves gods of evil, darkness, and death. Whereas the Tuatha de Danann are the gods of light, knowledge, and inspiration.
At the Second Battle of Mag-Tured Nuada Argatlam is struck down by Balor's evil eye. Lugh of the Long Arm fights at the side of his father, the Dagda, and takes his revenge by using a slingshot to push Balor's eye back into his skull so that he dies. Oghma, the champion of the Tuatha de Danann, steals the Sword of Tethra. In return, the Fomorii take the harp of the Dagda. Now, it must be remarked that the ability of the Dagda to perform these deeds after his death is attributed to the immortal qualities possessed by the gods. Thus, the Dagda travels together with Lugh and Oghma to retrieve his harp from the hands of the Fomorii. He calls his harp back to him, and in the process the harp slays nine of the Fomorii in its flight back to its rightful owner. The Dagda then proceeds to play each of the three strings on the harp. The first causes the women of the Fomorii to cry and lament, the second to laugh hilariously without thought of word or deed, and the last to put the entire encampment asleep. Once everyone was deeply asleep, the three warriors escaped from the Fomorii and returned home with the harp.
But the harp is not the only magical item possessed by the Tuatha de Danann. It is said that they came from four different cities which each carried a special treasure to the new land of Ireland. The first one came from Falias and was a stone that no one could stand upon and tell a lie. It was called the Lia Fial, or the Stone of Destiny. During the sixth century, Fergus the Great of Scotland asked the High King of Ireland, Murtagh mac Erc for the loan of the stone for his coronation. The stone was later returned. Each High King of Ireland was crowned upon the Lia Fial which was kept at Tara. It was only until the reign of Edward I in 1297 that the stone was taken for use at Westminster Abbey. Now, according to legend only the descendants of the Milesians could make use of the stone. Even today this hold true as the ruling royalty is still said to possess this lineage.
The other three treasures included the Sword of Lugh from Gorius. The cult of the sword was very important in that time. It was believed that a sword could hold the power of a people and thus it was of great importance. Another was the Cauldron of the Dagda was Murias. It was said that the cauldron was able to feed large gathering of men and never go empty. Truly, this would be a wonderful strategy to make use of during times of war. The last was the Spear of Lugh which was guarded the Tuatha de Danann. To fight with the Spear was to be victorious in battle. By its light their enemies would go blind.
Eventually, the Tuatha de Danann had to fall as all great peoples must do. When the Milesians came, their representative Ith was asked to settle an argument between two feuding chieftains. He spoke of the greatness and richness of Ireland and told them that they should equally divide up the land and share this wealth. This comment was taken to be an aggressive action and it was believed that Ith wanted part of Ireland for himself. To prevent this, they killed him. When word reached his homeland, an army was sent to avenge him. The Tuatha de Danann were driven under the hills where they became the Sidhe, or faerie folk.