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Post by Indilwen on Jul 16, 2010 15:09:18 GMT 12
ANCIENT EGYPT
Ancient Egypt, that narrow, fertile land bordering the Nile River, has always seemed to draw humankind’s attention and imagination. We know much about Egypt, yet there still remain many unanswered questions, suppositions, and just plain guesses about their beliefs and culture. The culture of long ago Egypt is still covered with a mystique that fascinates people. What is really remarkable is that this civilization remained virtually unchanged for over 3000 years. This great civilization began about 4500 BC. The four greatest periods in its history were the Old Kingdom (2686-2181 BC, Dynasties III-VIII), the Middle Kingdom (2134-1786 BC, Dynasties XI and XIII), the Second Intermediate Kingdom (1786-1570 BC, Dynasties XIII-XVII), and the New Kingdom (1570-1085 BC, Dynasties XVIII-XX). The Persians, Greeks, and Romans, who ruled Egypt from 525 BC to AD 324, did little, if anything, to restore the former glory and advancement of the culture. During these periods, there were several individuals and one group that made their mark on Egyptian history. In the Old Kingdom, Khufu was responsible for building one of the magnificent pyramids, but little is known of his life. During the Second Intermediate Kingdom, the Hyksos (Shepherd Kings) came out of the east to conquer Egypt in the middle of the eighteenth century BC, and continued to rule by force for about 150 years. The Egyptians called them Aamu (Asiatics). Although some of their rulers had Semitic names, it is impossible to identify their country of origin. It is likely that the Hyksos introduced the horse and chariot into Egypt, An innovation that may have contributed to their downfall. In the New Kingdom Dynasty XVIII, arose a very singular pharaoh, a woman named Hatshepsut. Hatshepsut was the first, and probably the only, woman to ascend the Egyptian throne. She began as the wife of her half-brother Thutmose II. Only daughters came from this union, but Thutmose had a son by a concubine. Thutmose II died while the son was still very small; Hatshepsut seized the throne and ruled for more than twenty years. She added to the Temple of Amen at Karnak and also built the magnificent temple at Deir el Bahri (called Djeser-djeseru in Egyptian). When Thutmose III came to the throne at her death in 1481 BC, he obliterated her name on everything, destroyed many of her statues, and persecuted anyone who had upheld her claim to rule. Akhenaton (also known as Ikhnaton), born about 1370 BC, is remembered for the controversy he created when he tried to force the Egyptians into the worship of one god. He reigned in the same Dynasty as Hatshepsut. At his birth his father, Amenhotep III, gave him the name Akhenamen (meaning “Amen is satisfied”). His mother Ti was a commoner, raised to royal status by the marriage. In the sixth year of his reign, Akhenaton changed his name to reflect his new religious interest. He moved his capital from Thebes (home of the god Amen) to a new city, Akhetaton (the Horizon of Aton), 300 miles to the north. Soon he forbade worship of the old gods, especially Amen-Ra, whose name was obliterated from all temples, tombs, and monuments. He decreed that Aton was the one and only god to be worshipped. There was so much controversy over his dictatorial religious laws that there was little mourning at his death. Tutankhamen was Akhenaton’s son-in-law, ruling after Akhenton, and related in some way to Amenhotep III. It is possible that he was the son of Akhenaton by a lesser wife or concubine. When he became pharaoh he was somewhere between nine and twelve years old and his wife, Ankhesenamon, about eleven or twelve. We do know that his original name was Tutankhaton, but he changed it to Tutankhamen when, after three years of rule, he moved his court back to Thebes. One of Tutankhamen’s first projects was to restore the temples that Akhenaton had desecrated. It is known from his mummy that he died violently at age eighteen, but history is silent about the actual events. Egyptian pharaohs usually were born into or married into the ruling family of a Great Queen or Great Royal Wife (Godwives). Remnants of the Goddess-civilization were evident in the fact that no man became pharaoh except by marrying a daughter of the ruling house. Inheritance of the throne and power descended through the female.
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Post by Indilwen on Jul 16, 2010 15:09:47 GMT 12
Ancient Egypt Dress and Ornamentation
The only Egyptian material for clothing was linen, usually white. It was woven in a wide range of textures from a coarse, canvas-like cloth to a very delicate, semi-transparent gauze. By the time of the New Kingdom, women’s dress had changed from a form-fitting ankle-length shift with slender straps covering the breasts to a very sheer pleated robe, open in the front and tied at the waist by an embroidered sash. The older shift was retained as an underdress. An accordion-pleated cape went over the shoulders, with the ends tied on the breast. The basic kilt for men remained the same through all periods, except that the length went up and down. This kilt was a rectangle of linen (sometimes pleated), knee-length mostly, wrapped around the body at the waist and fastened in the front by knots, sashes, or overlap. Sometimes a long, elaborate robe, sheer and pleated, was worn over this. Nearly everyone went barefoot, wearing sandals only for special occasions. These sandals were of leather and often decorated with lotus blossoms, beads, or sequins. A linen square, anchored by a band, was worn as a head-covering. Sheer, elegant robes, worn by both men and women, were long and loose. Often they were fringed and covered with rich designs: animals, flowers, religious symbols, cartouches. Priests and priestesses frequently wore robes ornamented with blue and gold. Men wore their hair much as they might today, and were clean shaven. Feminine hair styles were long. Sometimes the hair was braided into many tiny braids, sometimes left loose, sometimes shaped into ringlets bound with gold rings. Fillets and wreaths were common, as were diadems and ribbons. Jewelry was popular with both sexes: earrings, necklaces, pendants, bracelets, amulets, talismans, anklets, finger rings. The most popular, beautiful adornment was the wide, flexible collar that covered the wearer from the base of the neck to the middle of the breast. The main metals used were gold, copper, and electrum (a mixture of gold and silver). Gold was in a wide range of colors, from grey to rose-pink. The Egyptian artisans were experts at inlay, embossing, filigree, gilding, plating, and a kind of enameling. However, they only knew and used semi-precious gems, except pearls. The gems widely used were carnelian, turquoise, garnet, feldspar, rock crystal, and lapis lazuli. Faience in turquoise color was extremely popular. The only cosmetics worn were rouge for the cheeks and lips, liner for the eyes. Both sexes dramatically outlined their eyes with black, grey, and deep green. Scented oils, such as myrrh and other sweet resins, were popular. These scents were sometimes embedded in small cones of fat and worn on the head for special occasions.
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Post by Indilwen on Jul 16, 2010 15:10:30 GMT 12
Egyptian Religion
From early in their history the Egyptians held the concept of continuation of life after death. They perfected the art of embalming and built magnificent tombs and pyramids. Their environment was reflected in the nature, aspects, and appearances of their deities. In the Old Kingdom, the three important religious centers were Memphis, Heliopolis, and Hermopolis. By the time of the New Kingdom, the priests of Amen at Thebes had gained supremacy, making that city the ultimate religious power, and their god ruler of the Egyptian pantheon. Egyptian deities didn’t require human sacrifice or annihilation of people with other religious beliefs. Temples were not considered a place of communal worship. They were looked upon as houses for the deities; there, statues were kept and attended by priests and priestesses. The priesthood was not celibate. The pharaoh was considered an incarnated god upon earth. The life of the average Egyptian was a blend of religion and the use of magick. Magick was vital part of everyday life. The people believed that worship was basically a private, personal concern and duty. After all, the ancient Egyptians said, when you stood in the Hall of Judgement after death, no one could tamper with the scales that weighed your heart for truth and goodness. Your soul was laid bare; everything was revealed. Individual worship was performed at home altars and certain shrines, with the populace as a whole participating in the great seasonal festivals. The common people were not admitted to the great temples, but they made pilgrimages to certain shrines. National or regional festivals of deities were primarily journeys of appropriate statues through the local streets or on the Nile, as in the case of Amen’s feast of Opet, when his statue was taken from Karnak to his temple at Luxor and back. Since worship was considered a private concern, the ordinary person visited the temple of his choice for healing or to present petitions when he needed something. Even then, he entered only the outer courts of the temples. The inner sanctuary of the deity was entered only by the highest priests, priestesses, or the pharaoh. Originally, the priests and priestesses did not believe in polytheism or animal worship. They believed that the god-forms each represented a principle or aspect of the Supreme Creator. They believed that as long as the spiritual needs of humans were met, it did not matter how the Ultimate Spirit was pictured. These priests/ priestesses used a sacred language known only to them for all rituals and worship, probably the remnant of a very ancient language. Some temples were centers of healing, “sleep houses,” where dream therapy and hypnosis were used to cure the sick. In these places, quiet music of special sounds and rhythms were employed for healing the whole person---body, emotions, mind, and spirit. At sunrise each morning, the priest or priestess in charge of the day’s rituals entered the deity’s sanctuary and broke the deals on the doors of the shrine. The statue of the deity within usually made of gold or other precious metals and gems was washed, anointed, dressed in fresh clothing, and hung with jewelry. Fresh offerings of food and wine were laid out. The Singers chanted hymns and the day’s regular duties began. More rituals were held at high noon. The altar faced east at dawn, south at noon and west at sunset. Much incense was used, especially Kyphi, a sacred blend burned only in the sanctuaries. This particular incense had such high vibrations that it was also used later by the Greeks. It was believed that the incense smoke rising towards the gods bore with it words of power. This was deemed pleasing to Osiris who heard the prayers and did as the petitioner asked. At sundown the priest/priestess in charge closed the shrine and sealed the doors. Carefully backing out of the sanctuary, he or she swept away all traces of footprints literally and symbolically, so that the sacred space would be ritually clean. During this, the Singers chanted more hymns. Egyptian worship was intertwined with music and dancing. The Singers could either be male or female, depending upon the deity they served. The Temple Dancers were most often female, spending their early years actively participating in the sacred dances, and their later years instructing the new Dancers. Dancing and chanting made it necessary to have musicians. These were attached to the temples, as were the Dancers and Singers, and were usually female. Sometimes there were dramatic performances for very special religious rites. Small drums, tambourines, flutes, the lute, the lyre, and the oboe were used. There were many types of harps, from lap-size to the tall floor models. Music was accompanied by hand clapping and finger snapping of the Dancers. And there was the ever-present sistrum, especially in the temples of Bast, Isis, Hathor, and Sekhmet. The ancient Egyptians were well aware that humans had more than just a physical body. They said that humankind had seven souls. Much of the esoteric meaning of these forms has been lost. What we now know of these “souls” is limited, but vastly interesting and informative. The physical body of humankind was called the khat. The ka (double) came into existence when the body was born. It continued to live in the body but was independent and distinct from it. It could assume any form and travel wherever it pleased in the realms of the gods. The ka did not die at the death of the body, but continued to live in the tomb statues of the deceased. The Egyptians knew it as the body-soul; in their hieroglyphs it was pictured as a bird with a bearded human head. The ab (heart) was believed to be the seat of the life-force and the home of emotions and passions. The Egyptians said that it was formed from the mother’s heart blood. The ba (soul) was intimately connected with the heart; they called it the heart-soul. It was a kind of ghost or astral form that appeared at death. The khu or aakhu (spirit) was known as the spirit-soul. It was eternal and could not be injured or killed. The Egyptians thought it resided in the blood as a primordial life force. It was the spiritual part of humankind. Sometimes its meaning is translated as intelligence. The khaibit (shadow) was closely tied to the sah (spiritual body). Resurrection was not considered complete unless the sah had its shadow. If the shadow was lost or stolen while the person was alive, it was believed that the physical body would exist in a diseased or dying state. In many cultures besides ancient Egypt, to steal a person’s shadow meant to steal their magickal power and their life; such a theft was considered a crime. Other important forms of each person were the sah and the sekhem. The sah or sahu (spiritual body) was the eternal dwelling place of the soul. It had the power to travel anywhere on earth and among the gods. The khu lived within it. The sekhem (power) animated the sah; we might term the sekhem willpower or purpose. At death, religious rites freed the sah from the physical body. The existence of the eternal sah is the idea behind the Egyptian belief in resurrection. The sah, in actuality, is the total of all incarnations, the spiritual form that must always return to the Hall of Judgment at the death of the physical body. The ren (soul-name) was believed to be a vital part of every person. It was given to each person at birth by the goddess Renenet. The Egyptians believed that only by knowing the correct soul-name of a person, animal, or object could you have power over it. This, of course, had its positive and negative sides. The true name of every person had to be given to the gods when the heart was weighed on the scales of truth in the Hall of Judgment. Knowledge of a name also made a person vulnerable to black magick. To the Egyptians the zodiac was: Aries, En-me-shar-ra; Taurus, Gud-an-na; Gemini, Tuamu; Cancer, Al-lul; Leo, Ur-gu-la; Virgo, Ab-sin; Libra, Zi-ba-ni-tum; Scorpio, Gir-tab; Sagittarius, Pa-bil-sag; Capricorn, Uz or Enzu; Aquarius, Gu-an-na; Pisces, Nu-shame. The planets were: Jupiter, Heru-ao-sheta-taui (without a god); Saturn, Heru-ka-pet (Horus); Mars, Heru-khuti (Ra); Mercury, Sebku (Set); Venus, Bennu-Asar (Osiris). The Egyptian calendar consisted of twelve months of thirty days with an adjustment period made up of extra days. Originally, they may have used a lunar calendar of thirteen months, but changed to the solar calculation when the Sun gods became prominent. The culture of the Nile was based primarily on agriculture. The people were attuned to the season, equinoxes, and solstices. Their year was divided into three seasons of four months each: Inundation from July 19 - November 15; winter from November 16 - March 15; summer from March 16 - July 18. There is also strong evidence in their writings that seasonal solar changes were celebrated. Certain religious festivals (dates unknown) were known to have been celebrated by the majority of the people. The Festival of Thoth, Lord of the Holy Words and inventor of the Four Laws of Magick, was on New Year’s Day. The Recovery of Isis celebrated the return of health to the goddess after the birth of the Sun god Horus. The Resurrection of Osiris and his ascendance to the heavens probably occurred near the spring equinox. The Festival of Bast was a summer celebration, while the Night of the Teardrop was in remembrance of the sorrows of Isis. Opener of the Way, also called the Feast of Bread, honored the goddess Neith and was a harvest festival. The times of Hathor’s Feast Day and the Mummification of Osiris are unknown. The Birth of Horus occurred about December 23, shortly after the winter solstice, the time of the final entombment of Osiris called the Night of Lamps because lamps were burnt all night. Each month had two Moon festivals: one at the New Moon with dance and song, and one at the Full Moon, a time of petitions and magick, rituals, and religious celebrations. Gods/Goddesses of the month were:
1: Goddess Tekhi/Tekh-Heb 2: God Ptah-Aneb-Res-F or Menkhet 3: Goddess Het-Hert 4: Goddess Sekhet 5: God Min or Amsu 6: God Rekeh-Ur 7: God Rekeh-Netches 8: Goddess Renenet 9: God Khensu 10: God Khenthi 11: Goddess Apt 12: God Heru-Khuti
Birthdays of the deities on the five extra days of each year were: first day, Osiris; second day, Haeoeris or Heru, the Blind Horus; third day, Set; fourth day, Isis; fifth day, Nephthys. The four gods called the four sons of Horus were really a personification of the four elements. In the Pyramid Texts, they were known as the Shesu-Heru, or Shemsu-Heru (Followers of Horus). They were also said to hold the four pillars of Heaven. However, even Budge has conflicting evidence whether the northern deity was Mestha or Hap. Tomb pictures of Mestha are identified clearly, though. The four sons of Horus were:
East, Air: Tuamutef/Duamutef (with a jackal head) South, Fire: Akeset/Amset/Imsety (with a human head) West, Water: Qebhsennuf/Qebhsnuf (with a hawk head) North, Earth: Mestha/Hap/Hapi (with an ape head)
The god Hapi listed with the elements cannot be the same as the river god Hapi, since the elemental god is always shown with an animal head and the Hapi, the river god, is shown in human form. There were also Egyptian gods and goddesses who represented the four directions. These were:
East: Bast, Min, Osiris, Ra South: Nekhebet, Sekhmet West: Ament, Hathor, Neith, Anubis, Temu, Sebek, Nephthys North: Buto, Shu, Mehueret, Isis
Egyptian magick was primarily of two kinds: first, magick to benefit the living or the dead; second, the type used to harm people. at the beginning of each ritual, four lighted lamps were set at the four quarters or directions. They represented the four sons of Horus. Symbols were also set at these quarters. At the east was placed a tat, and in the south a model of a palm tree. At the west was set a figure of Anubis, in the north a figure of a mummy, sometimes lying in a coffin. The power of any spell, incantation, or any word of power was considered greatly increased by the use of magickal pictures and amulets. The ankh was a favorite symbol, along with the tat of Osiris (also called a Tet or djed), the solar disk, the scarab, the lotus, the buckle of Isis, and the Eye of Horus. Wax images were used in certain rituals, primarily for gaining someone’s love or harassing enemies. The name of the individual was cut or written on the image. After spells were recited over the figure, it was stabbed, destroyed, or (for love) carried next to the heart. The priests of Amen-Ra at Thebes regularly burned a wax image of the evil god Apep. These wax serpent-forms were subjected to all kinds of abuse before they were destroyed in a fire.
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